The Importance of Both Individual Differences and Dyadic Processes in Children's Emotion Expression.

Although children display strong individual differences in emotion expression, they also engage in emotional synchrony or reciprocity with interaction partners. To understand this paradox between trait-like and dyadic influences, the goal of the current study was to investigate children's emotion expression using a Social Relations Model (SRM) approach. Playgroups consisting typically of four same-sex unfamiliar nine-year-old children (N = 202) interacted in a round-robin format (6 dyads per group). Each dyad completed two 5-minute tasks, a challenging frustration task and a cooperative planning task. Observers coded children's emotions during the tasks (happy, sad, angry, anxious, neutral) on a second-by-second basis. SRM analyses provided substantial evidence of both the trait-like nature of children's emotion expression (through significant effects for actor variance, multivariate actor-actor correlations, and multivariate intrapersonal correlations) and the dyadic nature of their emotion expression (through significant effects for partner variance, relationship variance, dyadic reciprocity correlations, and multivariate interpersonal correlations).

Emotion transmission in peer dyads in middle childhood.

This study investigated emotion transmission among peers during middle childhood. Participants included 202 children (111 males; race: 58% African American, 20% European American, 16% Mixed race, 1% Asian American, and 5% Other; ethnicity: 23% Latino(a) and 77% Not Latino(a); Mincome  = $42,183, SDincome  = $43,889; Mage  = 9.49; English-speaking; from urban and suburban areas of a mid-Atlantic state in the United States). Groups of four same-sex children interacted in round-robin dyads in 5-min tasks during 2015-2017. Emotions (happy, sad, angry, anxious, and neutral) were coded and represented as percentages of 30-s intervals. Analyses assessed whether children's emotion expression in one interval predicted change in partners' emotion expression in the next interval. Findings suggested: (a) escalation of positive and negative emotion [children's positive (negative) emotion predicts an increase in partners' positive (negative) emotion], and (b) de-escalation of positive and negative emotion (children's neutral emotion predicts a decrease in partners' positive or negative emotion). Importantly, de-escalation involved children's display of neutral emotion and not oppositely valenced emotion.

Children's social information processing predicts both their own and peers' conversational remarks.

The goal of the current study was to investigate whether children's social information processing (SIP) predicts their conversations with peers, including both their remarks to peers and peers' remarks to them. When children (N = 156; 55% male; United States; Representation by Race: 60% African American, 18% Mixed race, 15% European American, 7% Other; Representation by Latino/a Ethnicity: 22% Latino/a, 78% Not Latino/a; Mincome = $39,419) were 8 years old, we assessed their aggressive and prosocial SIP using the Social Information Processing Application (SIP-AP). When children were 9 years old, they participated in playgroups typically consisting of four same-sex unfamiliar children who interacted in a round-robin format. Each dyad completed a five-minute frustration task and a five-minute planning task. Observers coded children's verbalizations into six prosocial categories (Suggest, Agree, Solicit Input, Ask, Encourage, State Personal) and four antisocial categories (Command, Disagree, Discourage, Aggress). Children with higher aggressive SIP made more antisocial and fewer prosocial statements, whereas children with higher prosocial SIP made more prosocial and fewer antisocial statements. Furthermore, children with higher aggressive SIP elicited more antisocial and fewer prosocial statements from peers, whereas children with higher prosocial SIP elicited more prosocial and fewer antisocial statements from peers. Children's antisocial and prosocial remarks mediated relations between their aggressive SIP and peers' subsequent antisocial and prosocial remarks. Findings are discussed in terms of: (a) the use of SIP to predict more subtle social behaviors in children's social interaction, and (b) cycles of social interactions that maintain and reinforce children's SIP patterns. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Lower Levels of Classroom Aggression Predict Stronger Relations Between Peer Victimization and Reactive Versus Proactive Aggression.

We examined the concurrent relations of children's reactive and proactive aggression with their experience of peer victimization. Extending previous research, we assessed these relations at both the child and classroom levels. We predicted that reactive aggression would relate positively to peer victimization, proactive aggression would relate negatively to peer victimization, and that these relations would vary with classroom levels of aggression. Participants included 1,291 fourth- and fifth-grade children (681 girls; M age = 10.14 years) and their 72 teachers from 9 schools in one public school district in the Mid-Atlantic United States. Children completed self-report measures of peer victimization and teachers completed measures of aggression for each child in their classrooms. Via two-level regression (level 1 = child; level 2 = classroom), reactive aggression related positively to peer victimization and proactive aggression related negatively to peer victimization. The positive relation between reactive aggression and peer victimization was only significant in classrooms with low levels of reactive aggression. The negative relation between proactive aggression and peer victimization was only significant in classrooms with low levels of proactive aggression. Our hypotheses were supported and offered further evidence for differential relations of reactive and proactive aggression with peer victimization at the child level, while demonstrating the important role of classroom norms for aggression in moderating these relations.

Validation of the Social Information Processing Application (SIP-AP) across genders, socioeconomic levels, and forms of aggression.

The goals of the current study were to (a) replicate the factor structure of the Social Information Processing Application (SIP-AP), (b) evaluate the measurement invariance of the SIP-AP across genders, socioeconomic (SES) levels, and forms of aggression, and (c) assess the convergent validity of the SIP-AP through associations with aggression, social competence, and rule-breaking behavior. Participants were 189 racially/ethnically diverse children (53% male; Mage = 8.50 years) who completed the SIP-AP. Parents reported on children's aggression and social competence, children reported on their aggression, and we observed children's rule-breaking behavior. A five-factor model including Hostile Cue Interpretations, Aggressive Goals, Aggressive Responses, Aggressive Response Evaluations, and Prosocial SIP replicated in this sample. The model was invariant across genders, SES levels, and forms of aggression (physical, relational, covert, property destruction). Girls reported more Aggressive Goals than boys. Children from more economically disadvantaged families reported higher levels of Hostile Cue Interpretations, Aggressive Goals, and Aggressive Response Evaluations. Aggression was related to all SIP constructs in expected directions, social competence was negatively associated with Hostile Cue Interpretations, and rule-breaking behavior was positively linked to Aggressive Goals, Aggressive Responses, and Aggressive Response Evaluations. Results are discussed in terms of the psychometric strengths of the SIP-AP. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Levels and Instability of Daily Self-Esteem in Adolescents: Relations to Depressive and Anxious Symptoms.

The current study examined whether individual differences in depressive and anxious symptoms relate to level of daily self-esteem and instability of daily self-esteem in adolescence. Participants were a racially and ethnically diverse sample of adolescents (79 girls, 65 boys; M age = 13.53 years). Adolescents reported on their depressive and anxious symptoms during a baseline home visit. Then, adolescents reported on their daily self-esteem over the course of 12 consecutive days. Using hierarchical linear modeling analyses, level of daily self-esteem was negatively associated with depressive but not anxious symptoms. In addition, a positive relation emerged between instability of daily self-esteem and depressive symptoms when controlling for level of self-esteem; a similar relation did not emerge for anxious symptoms. The differential findings that emerged between both level and instability of daily self-esteem and depressive versus anxious symptoms may be linked to differences in the temporal orientation of these two types of internalizing symptoms; specifically, depressive symptoms result from backward-looking rumination over previous experiences, whereas anxious symptoms emerge from forward-looking worry about future events (Wenze et al., 2012).

Using Three Reporters to Identify Pre-Adolescent Peer Victims through Latent Profile Analysis.

The goals of the current study were to use a three-reporter methodology and multi-level Latent Profile Analysis: (a) to determine the victim groups that emerge; (b) to evaluate the stability of victim groups over one school year; and (c) to examine differences among victim groups across the adjustment constructs of aggression, depression, anxiety, and negative peer relations. Our sample included 1440 racially/ethnically diverse 4th- and 5th-grade children (Mage = 10.15; 50% female). At the beginning (T1) and end (T2) of the school year, children completed both self and peer reports of victimization, teachers reported on students' victimization, and we collected data from multiple reporters on aggression, depression, anxiety, and negative peer relations. At T1, two groups emerged: non-victims (low across all reporters) and victims (high across all reporters). At T2, four groups emerged: non-victims (low across all reporters), moderate victims (moderate across all reporters), discordant high victims (high on self report, very high on peer report, moderate on teacher report), and concordant high victims (high across all reporters). The stability of victim groups from T1 to T2 was largely driven by non-victims; T1 victims dispersed fairly evenly across the four groups at T2. In term of adjustment, non-victims fared best across time points and adjustment constructs. At T2, the three victim groups increased in maladjustment from moderate victims to discordant high victims to concordant high victims. These findings support the use of three-reporter assessment and a multi-level LPA approach to identify children victimized by their peers.

Attachment Disorganization in Infancy: A Developmental Precursor to Maladaptive Social Information Processing at Age 8.

This study examined infant attachment as a predictor of social information processing (SIP) in middle childhood (n = 82) while controlling for parental sensitivity in middle childhood. Attachment quality was assessed using the Strange Situation. Although attachment insecurity did not predict SIP, attachment disorganization positively predicted the early SIP steps of hostile attributional bias and aggressive goals. Children with disorganized attachments interpreted ambiguous provocations more negatively (as indicating more hostility, rejection, and disrespect and as resulting in more anger) and endorsed significantly more revenge and dominance goals than children with organized attachments. In contrast, parental sensitivity negatively predicted the later SIP step of positive expectations for aggressive responses. Results further our understanding of the adverse outcomes associated with attachment disorganization.

Relations between Reactive and Proactive Aggression and Daily Emotions in Adolescents.

The current study examined whether individual differences in reactive and proactive aggression: 1) relate to level of daily emotion, including happiness, sadness, anger, and fear, 2) predict across-day variability in these emotions, and 3) moderate reactivity of these emotions to positive and negative events. Participants were a racially/ethnically diverse sample of 144 adolescents (80 girls, 64 boys; M age = 13.55 years; SD = 1.34). Adolescents self-reported on reactive and proactive aggression in a home visit prior to the collection of daily data. Using daily dairy procedures, adolescents then reported on their daily emotions and positive/negative events over 12 consecutive days. Higher reactive aggression was associated with greater levels of daily anger, more variability in anger across days, and heightened angry reactivity to negative events. Additionally, higher reactive aggression predicted lower levels of daily happiness but greater happy reactivity to positive events. Finally, higher reactive aggression was linked to increased variability in daily fear. In contrast, proactive aggression was largely unrelated to adolescents' daily emotions, with the exception that higher proactive aggression predicted less variability in happiness across days. Results indicate that reactive aggression is characterized by significant emotionality at the daily level, and proactive aggression is characterized by lack of emotionality.

Caregivers' Advice and Children's Bystander Behaviors During Bullying Incidents.

Many bullying prevention programs take a bystander approach, which encourages children to intervene when they are bystanders to bullying incidents. Little is known about how caregivers' advice to children might promote or undermine the positive bystander behaviors targeted by these programs. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was to investigate relations between caregivers' advice and children's bystander behavior during bullying situations. Participants were 106 racially/ethnically diverse 4th- and 5th-grade students (M age = 10.5 years, SD = .71 years), their classmates, and their caregivers. During classroom visits, peers reported on children's bystander behaviors. During home visits, caregivers and children completed a coded interaction task in which caregivers advised children about how to respond to bullying situations at school. Results suggested that (a) bystander intervention was positively predicted by caregivers' advice to help/comfort the victim, (b) bystander passivity was positively predicted by caregivers' advice to not intervene and negatively predicted by caregivers' advice to help/comfort the victim, and (c) bystander reinforcement/assistance of the bully was positively predicted by caregivers' advice not to intervene and not to tell adults. Results support a link between caregivers' advice at home and children's corresponding behavior when they are bystanders to bullying situations at school. These results emphasize the importance of collaboration between families and schools to reduce school bullying. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Teacher factors contributing to dosage of the KiVa anti-bullying program.

The KiVa Anti-Bullying Program (KiVa) seeks to meet the growing need for anti-bullying programming through a school-based, teacher-led intervention for elementary school children. The goals of this study were to examine how intervention dosage impacts outcomes of KiVa and how teacher factors influence dosage. Participants included 74 teachers and 1409 4th- and 5th-grade students in nine elementary schools. Teachers and students completed data collection at the beginning and end of the school year, including measures of bullying and victimization, correlates of victimization (depression, anxiety, peer rejection, withdrawal, and school avoidance), intervention cognitions/emotions (anti-bullying attitudes, and empathy toward victims), bystander behaviors, and teacher factors thought to relate to dosage (self-efficacy for teaching, professional burnout, perceived principal support, expected effectiveness of KiVa, perceived feasibility of KiVa). The dosage of KiVa delivered to classrooms was measured throughout the school year. Results highlight dosage as an important predictor of change in bullying, victimization, correlates of victimization, bystander behavior, and intervention cognitions/emotions. Of the teacher factors, professional burnout uniquely predicted intervention dosage. A comprehensive structural equation model linking professional burnout to dosage and then to child-level outcomes demonstrated good fit. Implications for intervention design and implementation are discussed.